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This article is about the electronic device. For mechanical precursors to the modern calculator, see mechanical calculator. For other uses, see Calculator (disambiguation).

The first solid-state electronic calculator was created in the early 1960s. Pocket-sized devices became available in the 1970s, especially after the Intel 4004, the first microprocessor, was developed by Intel for the Japanese calculator company Busicom.

Modern electronic calculators vary from cheap, give-away, credit-card-sized models to sturdy desktop models with built-in printers. They became popular in the mid-1970s as the incorporation of integrated circuits reduced their size and cost. By the d of that decade, prices had dropped to the point where a basic calculator was affordable to most and they became common in schools.

Handheld Electronic Calculators

Computer operating systems as far back as early Unix have included interactive calculator programs such as dc and hoc, and interactive BASIC could be used to do calculations on most 1970s and 1980s home computers. Calculator functions are included in most smartphones, tablets and personal digital assistant (PDA) type devices.

In addition to geral purpose calculators, there are those designed for specific markets. For example, there are scitific calculators which include trigonometric and statistical calculations. Some calculators ev have the ability to do computer algebra. Graphing calculators can be used to graph functions defined on the real line, or higher-dimsional Euclidean space. As of 2016

With the very wide availability of smartphones and the like, dedicated hardware calculators, while still widely used, are less common than they once were. In 1986, calculators still represted an estimated 41% of the world's geral-purpose hardware capacity to compute information. By 2007, this had diminished to less than 0.05%.

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Electronic calculators contain a keyboard with buttons for digits and arithmetical operations; some ev contain "00" and "000" buttons to make larger or smaller numbers easier to ter. Most basic calculators assign only one digit or operation on each button; however, in more specific calculators, a button can perform multi-function working with key combinations.

Calculators usually have liquid-crystal displays (LCD) as output in place of historical light-emitting diode (LED) displays and vacuum fluoresct displays (VFD); details are provided in the section Technical improvemts.

Large-sized figures are oft used to improve readability; while using decimal separator (usually a point rather than a comma) instead of or in addition to vulgar fractions. Various symbols for function commands may also be shown on the display. Fractions such as 1 ⁄3 are displayed as decimal approximations, for example rounded to 0.33333333. Also, some fractions (such as 1 ⁄7 , which is 0.14285714285714; to 14 significant figures) can be difficult to recognize in decimal form; as a result, many scitific calculators are able to work in vulgar fractions or mixed numbers.

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Calculators also have the ability to save numbers into computer memory. Basic calculators usually store only one number at a time; more specific types are able to store many numbers represted in variables. The variables can also be used for constructing formulas. Some models have the ability to extd memory capacity to store more numbers; the extded memory address is termed an array index.

Power sources of calculators are batteries, solar cells or mains electricity (for old models), turning on with a switch or button. Some models ev have no turn-off button but they provide some way to put off (for example, leaving no operation for a momt, covering solar cell exposure, or closing their lid). Crank-powered calculators were also common in the early computer era.

The following keys are common to most pocket calculators. While the arrangemt of the digits is standard, the positions of other keys vary from model to model; the illustration is an example.

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Wh a calculator is powered on, it scans the keypad waiting to pick up an electrical signal wh a key is pressed.

They are number stores where numbers are stored temporarily while doing calculations. All numbers go into the X register first; the number in the X register is shown on the display.

The instructions for in-built functions (arithmetic operations, square roots, perctages, trigonometry, etc.) are stored here in binary form. These instructions are programs, stored permantly, and cannot be erased.

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Clock rate of a processor chip refers to the frequcy at which the ctral processing unit (CPU) is running. It is used as an indicator of the processor's speed, and is measured in clock cycles per second or hertz (Hz). For basic calculators, the speed can vary from a few hundred hertz to the kilohertz range.

Most pocket calculators do all their calculations in binary-coded decimal (BCD) rather than binary. BCD is common in electronic systems where a numeric value is to be displayed, especially in systems consisting solely of digital logic, and not containing a microprocessor. By employing BCD, the manipulation of numerical data for display can be greatly simplified by treating each digit as a separate single sub-circuit. This matches much more closely the physical reality of display hardware—a designer might choose to use a series of separate idtical sev-segmt displays to build a metering circuit, for example. If the numeric quantity were stored and manipulated as pure binary, interfacing to such a display would require complex circuitry. Therefore, in cases where the calculations are relatively simple, working throughout with BCD can lead to a simpler overall system than converting to and from binary. (For example, CDs keep the track number in BCD, limiting them to 99 tracks.)

The same argumt applies wh hardware of this type uses an embedded microcontroller or other small processor. Oft, smaller code results wh represting numbers internally in BCD format, since a conversion from or to binary represtation can be expsive on such limited processors. For these applications, some small processors feature BCD arithmetic modes, which assist wh writing routines that manipulate BCD quantities.

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Where calculators have added functions (such as square root, or trigonometric functions), software algorithms are required to produce high precision results. Sometimes significant design effort is needed to fit all the desired functions in the limited memory space available in the calculator chip, with acceptable calculation time.

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The fundamtal differce betwe a calculator and computer is that a computer can be programmed in a way that allows the program to take differt branches according to intermediate results, while calculators are pre-designed with specific functions (such as addition, multiplication, and logarithms) built in. The distinction is not clear-cut: some devices classed as programmable calculators have programming functions, sometimes with support for programming languages (such as RPL or TI-BASIC).

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For instance, instead of a hardware multiplier, a calculator might implemt floating point mathematics with code in read-only memory (ROM), and compute trigonometric functions with the CORDIC algorithm because CORDIC does not require much multiplication. Bit serial logic designs are more common in calculators whereas bit parallel designs dominate geral-purpose computers, because a bit serial design minimizes chip complexity, but takes many more clock cycles. This distinction blurs with high-d calculators, which use processor chips associated with computer and embedded systems design, more so the Z80, MC68000, and ARM architectures, and some custom designs specialized for the calculator market.

The first known tools used to aid arithmetic calculations were: bones (used to tally items), pebbles, and counting boards, and the abacus, known to have be used by Sumerians and Egyptians before 2000 BC.

Except for the Antikythera mechanism (an "out of the time" astronomical device), developmt of computing tools arrived near the start of the 17th ctury: the geometric-military compass (by Galileo), logarithms and Napier bones (by Napier), and the slide rule (by Edmund Gunter).

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), a device that was at times somewhat over-promoted as being able to perform all four arithmetic operations with minimal human intervtion.

Pascal's calculator could add and subtract two numbers directly and thus, if the tedium could be borne, multiply and divide by repetition. Schickard's machine, constructed several decades earlier, used a clever set of mechanised multiplication tables to ease the process of multiplication and division with the adding machine as a means of completing this operation. There is a debate about whether Pascal or Shickard should be credited as the known invtor of a calculating machine due to the differces (like the differt aims) of both invtions.

Schickard and Pascal were followed by Gottfried Leibniz who spt forty years designing a four-operation mechanical calculator, the stepped reckoner, invting in the process his leibniz wheel, but who couldn't design a fully operational machine.

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The 18th ctury saw the arrival of some notable improvemts, first by Poli with the first fully functional calculating clock and four-operation machine, but these machines were almost always one of a kind. Luigi Torchi invted the first direct multiplication machine in 1834: this was also the second key-driv machine in the world, following that of James White (1822).

It was not until the 19th ctury and the Industrial Revolution that real developmts began to occur. Although machines capable of performing all four arithmetic functions existed prior to the 19th ctury, the refinemt of manufacturing and fabrication